Douglas & Olshaker (1997) define a serial killer as an individual who has murdered at least three people within a given time duration of at least a month, with a cooling off period in between the murders. Schlesinger (2000) asserts that the motivation for serial killing draws upon the psychological gratification. According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, a serial killing involves a series of at least two murders that are committed on separate occasions (Douglas & Olshaker, 1997). The FBI maintains that the motivation for serial killing involves attention seeking, financial gain, thrill and anger. It is imperative to differentiate serial killers from mass murderers, who murder at least four individuals simultaneously within relatively short time duration and in the same place. Serial killers are also differentiated from spree killers, who engage in multiple killings in multiple locations within relatively short time duration. According to Vronsky (2004), most serial killers tend to work alone and opt to commit murder for the sake of killing, which is contrary to the crime of passion. A recent study by the FBI pointed out that there were about 400 serial killers in the US during the 20^th century, with about 2536-3860 victims. Nevertheless, there is no accurate method to determine the number of active serial killers at any instance; experts have hinted the number to be about 50-300, but there is no evidence to support this assertion.

Best Essay Writing Services

Need Custom Written Paper? We'll Write an essay from scratch according to your instructions

Plagiarism Free

Prices From Only $11.99/Page

Call now Order now Start chat

Classification of Serial Killers

According to Vronsky (2004), serial killers can be classified basing on two factors: basing on the social and organizational patterns and basing on the motive. The classification basing on the motive is referred to as Holmes Typology. It is also imperative to note that not every serial murderer can be placed on a single group since many of them fall into several groups. With regard to Holmes typology, serial killers can be classified into either process-focused or act-focused. Act focused serial killers tend to kill quickly and believe that killing is only the act. Holmes typology further classifies act-focused serial killers into missionary and visionary serial killers. The visionary serial killers murder people because they have the visions or hear the voices that direct them to commit murders. Holmes & Holmes (1998) point that such serial killers tend to exhibit psychotic breaks from the elements of reality, and sometimes hold the believe that they are another individuals, or that they are forced to murder people by other entities such as God or the Devil. On the other hand, the missionary serial killers murder people since they are of the belief that they are tasked to eliminate the specific group of individuals. According to Holmes & Holmes (1998), they rationalize their actions by asserting that they are meant to change the society by eliminating some groups of individuals’ views as undesirable, such as prostitutes and homosexuals among others. Nevertheless, Holmes & Holmes (1998) maintain that mission-oriented serial killers do not exhibit psychotic characteristics.

Holmes & Holmes (1998) stipulate that the process-focused serial murders tend to enjoy the act of killing; as a result, they kill their victims slowly. They can be classified further into hedonists (gain, thrill and lust) and power seeking serial killers. The hedonistic serial killer is after thrills and pleasure by killing; as a result, they are of the belief that people are the dispensable means to achieving their goals. For the lust killers, killing provides a form of sexual pleasure. In addition, sexual gratification obtained from killing depends significantly from the degree of mutilation and torture they inflict on their victims. For the thrill killers, the main motive for killing is to inflict fear and pain in their victims; this stimulates and excites the killer. Holmes & Holmes (1998) assert that the thrill killer is after the adrenaline rush resulting from hunting and killing people. The Gain killers derive their motivation in the belief that they are likely to profit from the murder in some sort. An example of gain killers include the professional killers, commonly referred to as “hit men”, who earn money by being hired to kill. With regard to power/control serial killers, they have the primary intent of gaining and exercising the power over their victims. Holmes & Holmes (1998) point out that the power serial killers are mostly victims of child abuse, which left them with the feelings related to being powerless and inadequate as adults. In addition, most power and control-motivated serial killers tend to abuse their victims sexually; however, they are different from the lust killers in the sense that sexual abuse is motivated by the desire for sexual pleasure, but is perceived as a means of exercising dominance over the victim.

The behavior of serial killers can also be used as a variable for classifying serial killers using their social and organizational skills. Hickey (2010) classified serial killers as either disorganized or organized (basing on the crime scene) and asocial or nonsocial (basing on whether they exclude themselves or the society excluded them. The FBI points out that the organized serial killers are the most complicated to spot and capture; this is because of their high intelligent levels and good self-discipline. Hickey (2010) states that the organized serial killers plan their crime in advance and take precautionary measures to ensure that no trace of evidence is left behind. The FBI Crime Classification Manual characterizes such killers as the ones having an above average intelligence and a mean Intelligence Quotient of 113 (Hickey, 2010). On the other hand, the disorganized serial killers have a below average intelligence and a mean Intelligence Quotient of 92.5. In addition, they are often impulsive and kill using a random weapon that is accessible at that particular instant (Hickey, 2010).

Motives for Serial Killers

A number of theoretical explanations have attempted to elucidate the motives behind serial killings. Vronsky (2004) asserts that there is single explanation for serial murders. The three possible theoretical explanations for serial killer motives include child abuse and neglect, brain injury, and mental illness.

Regarding abuse and neglect, Schlesinger (2000) points out that most serial killers are the victims of child neglect and abuse. According to Schlesinger (2000), in the course of child development, there are significant periods during which the child learns the aspects such as empathy, trust and love, as well as how to relate with other people. In the event that the children fail to learn these traits, it is highly unlikely that they will learn them at a later stage in life. In this regard, Schlesinger (2000) maintains that serial killers are often the victims of sexual or physical abuse when they were children.

Serial killer insanity is also another explanation for the motives of serial killers. Some researchers claim that the only way to account for serial killing is insanity. This is evident by that fact that most serial murderers tend to plead “not guilty” by citing insanity as defense. Some researchers have also hypothesized that most serial murderers have some sort of brain damage or injury, or biological abnormalities. Schlesinger (2000) asserts that an injury in the frontal lobe, the limbic system and the hypothalamus can result in severe aggression, violence, loss of judgment, and loss of control. For instance, Henry Lucas Lee, a serial killer charged with killing 11 people, was found to have a severe brain injury in the limbic system, hypothalamus and the frontal lobe.

Conclusion

This paper has discussed the classification and motives for serial killers. Serial killers can be classified basing on two factors: basing on the social and organizational patterns and basing on the motive. Serial killers can be classified into either process-focused or act-focused. Act focused serial killers tend to kill quickly and believe that killing is only the act. Holmes typology further classifies the act-focused serial killers into missionary and visionary serial killers. Process-focused serial murders tend to enjoy the act of killing; as a result, they kill their victims slowly. They can be classified further into hedonists (gain, thrill and lust) and power seeking serial killers. The three possible theoretical explanations for serial killer motives include child abuse and neglect, brain injury, and mental illness.

The classification of phobic disorders has being reviewed since the 19^th century. Therefore, the investigation of modern classification is essential for further scientific purpose. The paper explores the historical perspective and defines two major classes of phobic disorders which are divided into subtypes. It also describes major symptoms and provides the causes of phobic disorder occurrence.  In addition, main methods of treatment are given in order to provide the complete analysis. The ACP Journal Club and EBM Reviews were accessed and searched for the articles on the issues under investigation. The obtained data were analyzed and systematized in coherent arguments. As a result, it has been found that all human beings suffer from one or few phobic disorders which manifest themselves over the lifespan. The majority of disorders begin in early childhood and adolescence because of fears acquired in various situations. However, all of these disorders can eventually be treated by means of appropriate techniques such as behavior therapy, age regression technique, or medication.

Keywords: age regression technique, agoraphobia, behavior therapy, hypnosis, illness, phobia, internal stimuli, external stimuli, medication, obsessive phobia, phobic disorder, social phobia, specific phobia

Best Essay Writing Services

Need Custom Written Paper? We'll Write an essay from scratch according to your instructions

Plagiarism Free

Prices From Only $11.99/Page

Call now Order now Start chat

Phobic disorders

Historic Perspective

The term ‘phobia’ originates from the Greek word ‘phobos’ meaning terror and panic fear. In Greek mythology, Phobos was the twin brother of Deimos. They were the sons of Aphrodite and Ares. The brothers accompanied their father in wars and were known as “terrible gods.” Phobic disorder is considered to be an irrational fear that results in a conscious avoidance of the feared situation, activity, or subject. Phobic anxiety does not differ significantly from spontaneous or non-phobic anxiety since both are characterized by psychophysiological responses. They can surmount a person with unpleasant sensations of helplessness and weakness. Phobia includes two components: “phobic anxiety” and “phobic avoidance.” The inherent component of the phobic personality is the desire or need to escape the anxiety-provoking situation. Phobia may induce very strong feeling of panic that is accompanied by a sense that death or madness are imminent. The secondary feature of phobic disorder is a fear of fear itself. Therefore, the patient no longer feels in control their own body or impulses.

In early psychoanalytic writings, phobic disorder was considered to be predominant through the prism of a threat from instinctual tension. Freud believed that some phobias, for instance, zoophobia was considered to be vestigial traces of the inherent preparedness to face real danger which was strongly developed in animals. These phobic disorders are common in childhood but may be treated if they are symptoms of “anxiety hysteria.” Freud defined phobia as a central symptom of “anxiety hysteria.” However, he also claimed that phobic symptoms might be found in various psychotic and neurotic states (Morgan, 2003).

Classification

Phobia managed to achieve a separate diagnostic label only in 1952. At a later date, subdivision of phobic disorders appeared. Phobic disorders were conveniently divided into Class I and Class II. The first division is a phobia of stimuli external, and the second one is a phobia of stimuli internal to the patient. Class I is the commonest phobia seen by psychiatrists. It is divided into three types: agoraphobia, social phobia, and specific phobias. Class II includes illness phobias and obsessive phobias.

According to the American Psychiatric Association, social phobia is a strong fear of interpersonal situation in which the embarrassment can occur. Nowadays this disorder is called social anxiety disorder.  It is the most common group of mental illness in the United States. Agoraphobia is the fear of being alone in public places from which a rapid exit would be difficult in the course of some situations. Specific phobia is more frequent in comparison with agoraphobia or social phobia. It is divided into the following major subtypes: natural environment type (fear of water, height), animal type (fear of spiders, snakes, dogs), situational type (fear of elevators, planes, enclosed spaces), blood injury type (fear of blood) and other types (fear of loud sounds, etc.) (Smoller, 2007).

Phobias of External Stimuli

The animal phobia is a clear cut disorder of specific phobia type. The fear of animals is also defined as zoophobia. As usual, children suffer from this phobia because of the frightening situations they are faced with. For instance, a child has being bitten or has seen a dog attacking a person on the street or in a movie. Animal phobia usually develops in early childhood. It more frequently occurs in women. Fewer patients who suffer from zoophobia seek treatment in comparison to those who have agoraphobia or social fears. This may be due to the fact that the phobic disorder does not disturb person’s life to the extent that other phobias do.

Agoraphobic syndrome is the commonest and the most distressing type of phobic disorders. Women are more prone to agoraphobia. Those who suffer from it demonstrate fear of being in a situation when they cannot escape or get help in case of a panic attack. Patients with this phobia fear public places, shopping, travelling and closed spaces. Stressful life events are the major factors that may precipitate the agoraphobia progression.

Social phobia encompasses fears of drinking, eating, blushing, speaking, or even writing in the presence of other people. This phobic disorder frequently occurs both in men and women. Patients with social phobia experience excessive fear of being judged negatively in social situations. Social phobia belongs to disorders with onset usually occurring in childhood.

Phobias of Internal Stimuli

Illness phobia is an intense fear. A person is focused on specific disturbances, such as heart disease, venereal disease, cancer, and death. The phobia resembles the endless obsessive thoughts of possibility to suffer from any diseases. Obsessive phobia is the fear for own feelings that come to consciousness contrary to the patient’s will. For instance, obsession phobia of killing a child makes a person hide any knives to avoid the temptation. Other examples of such fears are fears of making obscene gestures, or fears of contamination that results in obsessive hand washing. Obsessive phobia can start at any age in both sexes (Bruce, Coles, & Heimberg, 2012).

Symptoms and Causes of Occurrence

Multiple mechanisms contribute to the formation of fear and anxiety. Clinical investigations have discovered that phobia may be a minor complaint in a lot of disorders. It can be a part of depressive illness or a feature of schizophrenia, diffuse anxiety states, and obsessive neuroses. In this case, the management of phobic disorder depends on the treatment of the major condition in which the phobia occurs. Phobia is also distinguished as a patient’s dominant symptom and is called a phobic disorder or a state.

Phobic disorder interferes with person’s ability to study, work, and socialize. People who suffer from this disorder are overwhelmed by their anxiety. Approximately 10 percent of Americans has more than one clinically significant phobia. The average age for the phobia development is 15-20 years of age. A great number of fears develop in childhood and disappear before adulthood. However, if phobic disorder persists into adulthood, it will not disappear without treatment. Major symptoms of the phobia encompass the feeling of panic, horror, dread, rapid heart beating, trembling, shortness of breath, overwhelming desire to abandon the situation, chills or hot flashes, fear of losing control, sweating, abdominal distress, and even fear of dying.

Some physiologists claim that the development of phobic disorders is triggered by a genetic predisposition together with social and environmental causes. Others believe that neurotransmitter-receptor plays a significant part in the social phobia development. It has been proven that twins might suffer from the same type of phobia even if they were separated soon after birth.

Marting Seligan, the American physiologist, associated a small electric shock to certain pictures. He found that two to four shocks were enough in order to establish a phobia to pictures of snakes or spiders. Meanwhile, the pictures of flowers took larger series of shocks. Seligan explained that some fears where essential for the survival of the humanity thousands of years ago. Therefore, the fears lie inside person’s brain and wait awakening at any time (Arlette, Romy, Stephan, Ivailo, Wolfgang, & Frauke, 2007).

Treatment

Behavior therapy is one of the most successful treatments of phobic disorders. Patients meet a therapist and confront the feared situation in a carefully planned way in order to learn how to control the reactions of fear. The behaviorists believe that the phobic fear is the acquired reflex that can be disposed by exposing a person to the non-dangerous stimulus time after time. This treatment cannot occur naturally, that is why behavior therapy involves exposure to the phobic stimulus in a safe and controlled way. The patients must be immersed in the fear reflex until it fades away. By this medium, they can see that none of the feared consequences actually come to pass.

Hypnosis can also help patients get rid of phobic disorders. This method helps relax, slow down heart rate, and control breathing by means of this method. As a result, phobia sufferers can deal with a problem in a rational and calm manner. More severe cases are cured by the age regression technique that guides the patients back in time. It also helps them reassess the situation that initially triggered the fear.

Medications are mostly used to overcome panic attacks in case of social phobia and agoraphobia. Xanax and Valium are anti-anxiety drugs approved for the treatment of anxiety disorders. Beta-blockers such as Inderal and Tenormin control high blood pressure and some heart problems that help cope with anxiety during public speaking. Serotonin specific reuptake inhibitors such as Prozac, Paxil, and Zoloft also belong to the list of effective antiphobic medications. Practitioners often prescribe these drugs due to fewer side effects and a very low addiction potential (Bruce, Coles, & Heimberg, 2012).

To sum up, phobic states are a set of interrelated disorders with overlapping features. Phobias may occur in particular situations, at certain ages, and together with psychiatric symptoms. Phobic disorders must be clearly differentiated from phobic symptoms. A new classification of phobic disorders was proposed based on modern investigations. Two categories Class I and Class II of phobic disorders have a different clinical presentation, sex distribution, age of onset, and response to treatment.

Classification of drivers is such wide but there in this essay we will classify drivers the basic drivers on our roads according to the New York DMV which classifies drivers according to purpose and how long they have been driving. These include;

Best Essay Writing Services

Need Custom Written Paper? We'll Write an essay from scratch according to your instructions

Plagiarism Free

Prices From Only $11.99/Page

Call now Order now Start chat

The senior driver

This depends on how old an individual is but usually it is in the range of more than 65 years old in which one is usually termed as ‘seniors.’ The ‘seniors’ make about 13 percent of the US population but account for about 18 percent of all traffic fatalities. This is expected to go up as the baby boomers age thus swelling the number of old drivers on the roads in the near future.

Although most of the senior drivers do an excellent job in our roads, some as they age have certain physical changes occurring that may hamper them from good driving. These changes include but are not limited to; deterioration in vision or hearing. The result of the can be very fatal. The physical deterioration explains why the accident rates of the senior drivers exceed that of the underage drivers.  Some of the frequently reported mistakes by the old drives include failure to drive in the proper lane, failure to observe traffic signs, inattention and slow driving speeds on busy highways (Kansas department of transportation).

Beginner drivers

Attitudes about driving are formed as early as 9 years and the attitude of a kid determines what kind of a driver s/he will become. This is because most children tend to adopt attitudes similar to their parents. Therefore, parents should cultivate such positive attitudes about driving in their children like patience, vulnerability and safety consciousness.

This is the first stage of driving immediately one enrolls in a certain driving school like the DMV NY. This starts when one knows nothing from driving apart from sitting on the driver’s seat. The beginner is taught from the basic things that include importance of safe driving, traffic rules and regulations and manipulating an automobile. Beginners experience more complicated problems but they learn more and more as they move on.

For adolescents, they believe that they are invincible once behind the wheel. But figures from the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration speak otherwise; drivers between the ages of 15-20 are involved in more than 15 percent of all fatal crashes while they only constitute 6.7 percent of the driving population (Kansas department of transportation).

Disabled drivers

This category includes all those drivers who are impaired in one way or the other due to health conditions. Those people who use a wheel chair are classified here. Also included in the group are those people who cannot walk a 200m without rest due to such condition as orthopedic, arthritis or neurologic conditions (Kansas department of transportation).

The motorcycle driver

These are one of the most complicated drivers on our roads. This is due to a large number of reported accidents that happen due to careless motorcycle driving. The reason is that they are hard to see in traffic or for drivers to judge how far or how fast they are moving. Although motorcycles account for only 4 percent of motor vehicles on the road, they are involved in about 10 percent of all traffic deaths.

Motorcycles have the same rights and responsibilities as all other drivers. It is always good that there is space between a motor vehicle and a motorcycle while on the road (Kansas department of transportation).

Fast drivers

These are those drivers that tend to drive within 5 mph of the fastest safe driving speed on the road and have very few people following them. They are found driving at 90 mph instead of a 70 mph on a freeway.  The fast drivers tend to focus their eyes on the road and not the people or the things on it. For this very reason, fast drivers are very attentive and alert to what is going on and if there is something that may pop up on the road, they are likely to stop before it is too late.

For the safest fast drivers, they know how to slow down slightly when there is danger ahead or if visibility ahead is limited. These fast but safe drivers know how to drive and not just operate a piece of machine. But fast drivers can also be dangerous especially if they are extremely aggressive and passing on close calls or cutting people off (The anatomy of 2 and 3 lane roads).

The slow driver

These are the kind of drivers that do not like to speed either because they are afraid of getting caught or simply not put all their attention on the road. Slow drivers rarely do cause serious problems on the road because they only got between the limits of 10-15 mph under the fastest safe driving speed for the road. These drivers are the ones that drive at 35 mph in a 50 mph zone or worse at 40 mph at a 75 mph zone (The anatomy of 2 and 3 lane roads).

Conclusion

Driving is such a complicated but enjoyable experience. More and more people are getting hooked up to driving and knowing how to drive gives one the opportunity to reach wherever they want without the hassle of commuting. The essay has dealt with the different types of drivers in our roads and their effect on traffic.

The concept of power appears to be a crucial one in terms of the phenomenon of management in the current course of time. It is significantly influential and predetermining in terms of influence and authority positioning within the course of management.

There are several types of power according to the modern classification: reward power, expert power, coercive power, referent power, legitimate power and informational power. Actually, every type of the concept of power is regarded as the embodiment of certain aspect of the discussed phenomenon. Hence, it is quite difficult to identify the higher level of significance as far as every scope of managerial activity requires certain peculiarities to be taken into consideration. Therefore, every type of power is regarded as efficient and significant within the relevant scope of actual implementation and provided proper and constructive approach to the course of implementation. The currently presented paper dwells on the peculiarities and overall essence of each type of the concept of power if some are important than other.

Best Essay Writing Services

Need Custom Written Paper? We'll Write an essay from scratch according to your instructions

Plagiarism Free

Prices From Only $11.99/Page

Call now Order now Start chat

Defining Power

The identification and definition of the concept of power is a crucial point in terms of proper and relevant comprehension of the phenomenon. It is necessary to underline that the concept of power is a multidimensional and miscellaneous one. Therefore, there is no unified definition of the phenomenon, but the range of the correspondent and mutually complementary ones.

Hence, it is relevant to define the concept of power in the management scope. Power is often regarded as a synonym to the notion of influence. “As for authority, this is variously defined as the formally constituted power of position, legitimate power in general, power which is inferred as legitimate, since commands are obeyed, or power legitimated by pursuit of collective goals.” (Hales 1993). Pfeffer (1981) underlines that

The very pervasiveness of the concept of power … is itself a cause for concern about the utility of the concept in assisting us to understand behavior in organization… Most definitions of power include an element indicating that power is a capability of one social actor to overcome resistance in achieving a desired objective or result.

Furthermore, it is relevant to dwell on the definition of the concept of power provided by Buchanan and Badham (1999) who define the concept as the ability “to produce the intended effects in line with one perceived interest, to overcome resistance on the part of other social actors.”

Sources of Power

It is relevant to discuss the approach and theories in terms of discussion concerning the concept of power, its types and their peculiarities the stance provided by French and Raven (1959). The authors present the theories on power styles so significant, grounded and perspective that they have become quite widely use in the recent course of time by the effective leaders in the scope of management targeted to influence followers and achieved certain outcomes. Hence, French and Raven (1959) grouped sources of power as a factor of primary significance into 5 categories which tend to be basically classified into organization and personal power. The scope of organizational power comprises such power styles as reward, coercive and legitimate power, whereas the scope of personal power types includes expert and referent power. Every particular style is used by a leader in order to provide the necessary influence upon the followers incorporated in order to reach certain ramifications and desired results of the activity course. Though, in case power style is implemented in practice with the aim to achieve a significant level of productivity as well as increase employee morale, there appears to be overall satisfaction. Moreover, the concept of power is used in a positive manner. Though, the purpose to coerce people by means of incorporation of the certain power style presupposes the potentially negative outcomes as well as scarcely sustainable results of the activity in the long run. One more closely related notion appears to be discussed. It is the notion of empowerment according to which the concept of power is used to equip and mobilize the corporate employees.

It is also significant to analyze and dwell upon the classification provided by Handy, the British management theorist. He presents the typology that distinguishes between the resources and the potential methods of influence. Hence, the typology comprises such types of power as physical, resource, position and personal power, whereas the classification of the methods of impact involves 6 types: force, magnetism, ecology, rules and procedures, persuasion and exchange methods. They tend to correlate with the types of power significantly. Hence, Handy provides the following correlational pairs typology:

Physical – Force

Resource – Exchange

Position – Rules and procedures

Personal power – Magnetism or persuasion

Furthermore, it is relevant to upon the conceptualization of power presented by Hales (1993). The author dwells on the concept of power as well as on the different levels of its interpretation and criticism which provides an objective and grounded picture for the relevant concept comprehension. Hales (1993) provides 5 key criticism points in terms of the classification of the power styles.

The first essential concern is the aspect of the reasons which eventually lead to conformity. It accounts for the reasons of responses from individuals to attempts to impact them… the second significant concern is the aspect of confusion in terms of conformity for extrinsic reasons and conformity for intrinsic reasons. It means the confusion of inner essence of the power and the outer ramifications which are potential in terms of certain power type.

Furthermore, Hales (1993) underlines the fact that the notions of punishment and reward (as central in terms of power impact and management process) should not be regarded as separate tools, but should be incorporated on the equal terms in order to provide higher level of efficiency of the power impact. The synergy is much more effective in the currently described terms.

The fourth criticism comprises the notion of legitimacy. This issue should be regarded as a particular dimension of all the styles of power presented in the classification, but not as a separate and distinct type. Furthermore, the last point of criticism concerns the actualization of the issue of power sources presented by French and Raven (1959). As a direct response to the aforementioned stance, Hales (1993) provides another classification of the types of power resources and distinguishes clearly between economic, knowledge, normative and physical power resources. This classification significantly contributes to the overall comprehension of the phenomenon of power in the context of management and organization.

Power Styles

Reward power

The choice of reward power style is preferred in case the leader tends to motivate and ‘highlight’ the followers and their achievements on the current stage of development. The reward notion may be released by different means provided there has been a promise to obey properly and timely the leader’s requests and directions. The reward type of power is actualized in the form of small incentives, awarding positioning or certain explicit promises made by the leader. Hence, there is direct connection within the system of actual performance and consequent reward. The most popular and efficient types of the reward according to this system comprise increase of salary or bonuses, extrinsic benefits, and promotions (Kerr& Slocum2005). Hence, the constructive alignment of the actual performance and the subsequent benefit is considered to be the core of reward power style.

Expert power

The type of expert power presupposes that the leader tends to administer the power by means of implementation of evidence, expertise and skills. The diversity of tools incorporated by the expert power type includes knowledge base as well as evidence based persuasion. Furthermore, proposals and innovative approach should also be taken into consideration. Moreover, it is essential to underline that the allocation of authority within the scope of power phenomenon appears to be based upon successful as well as perspective completion of the currently assigned tasks, incorporation in the course of professional activity certain specific skills which should be properly and constructively aligned with the relevant expert competencies (Barnett & Duvall 2005). The core of the efficiency of this style of comprises the skill base positioned as a valuable asset in terms of creation of the internal unity within the staff environment. Otherwise, such an approach may subsequently lead to forcefully provided acceptance of the notions or the policy of actual compliance that apparently lacks any motivation and may result in disunity within organizational goals (Bass 1985).

Coercive power

The coercive power style, according to French and Raven (1959), comprises such key constituent elements as punishment or the withdrawal of benefits which are implemented in practice in case of certain non-conformity. The penalties and losses within the professional scope tend to vary in different companies, but generally they tend to be actualized in the form of withdrawal of newly gained position or status within the corporation, demotion or withdrawal of certain range of actual as well as potential benefits or incentives. The strong side of coercive power style tends to depend upon the perception of the employees on the power of the leader to wield this type of power. Furthermore, in case of excessive use of coercive power style in practice it may subsequently lead to low morale and dissatisfaction of the corporate staff.

Referent power

The success and efficiency of the referent power style is considered to be as follows: the major power wielder (i.e. leader) is expected to be perceived in a positive light by the corporate employees in terms of peculiar and significant characteristic features. Such an attitude of the staff tends to boost the intrinsic motivation and serves as one of the most vivid, persuasive and efficient samples to follow. The aforementioned power style is implemented either in order to improve the workplace environment in general, or to boost self-esteem and overall efficiency of the corporate performance and corporate staff.

Legitimate power

According to Hellreigel, Slocum and Woodman (1982), this kind of power is considered to occupy a crucial place within the framework of leadership as far as the peculiar zone of responsibility attributed to the wielder of the power defines the scope of power. The scope of indifference is the zone within which the followers of the leader are ready to willingly follow the direction outlined by the leader, whereas outside this area the wielding of the legitimate power style tends to diminish significantly. Furthermore, the legitimate power style is quite different from the referent power style as far as it does not presuppose the performance of leader’s requests as a result of strong intrinsic motivation, whereas the performance is predetermined by sheer contractual obligations.

Informational Power

According to Hales (1993), the informational power style has been introduced by Raven (1965). Actually, the informational power style presupposes the following scenario: “the individual conforms in order to receive the desired information.” Hence, the major emphasis is put upon the knowledge as a source of power in the case of the informational power style.

Are some more important than others?

The classification of the power styles as well as actual sources of power demonstrates the diversity of actualization of power the leaders tend to experience. Actually, effective leaders do not restrict their activity to single power style. It is apparent that there are different employees as well as different situations and cases in the course of corporate performance. Therefore, the successful and pro-active managers in the current course of time tend to incorporate a mix of power styles in the process of professional activity in order to achieve desired outcomes.  Such an approach tends to create an efficient, constructive and dynamic organization atmosphere within the corporate staff community and appears to be flexible and more convenient for the leader.

Furthermore, it is relevant to underline that successful leaders tend to use several types of power simultaneously properly and timely mixed for a certain situation. The dynamics of the overall atmosphere that has been consequently created appears to be highly effective and significantly constructive.

Conclusion

Thus, the concept of power is a multidimensional, controversial and very perspective phenomenon in terms of management and leadership performance provided proper, timely and professional implementation in the practice. The diversity of power styles and sources of power presents the variety of excellent opportunities of impact and target achievement. There are 6 key power styles identified in the paper: reward power, expert power, coercive power, referent power, legitimate power and informational power. Every power style tends to incorporate certain source of power in order to provide a desired impact upon the employees  with the primary target to achieve the previously set goal. Furthermore, the efficiency and constructiveness of leadership and impact upon the followers is gained by means of mixing several power styles, i.e. by individual approach to the solution of particular situations.

Current paper analyzes the contents of the “Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest and Battle Mountain District Leases in Nevada” sample environmental consequences report and classifies the environmental and economic impacts listed into significant and non-significant. The choice has been made based on the information already included into the report as well as supported by historical evidence and other important criteria extracted from peer-reviewed academic publications.

Keywords: geothermal energy, geysers, quenching, social barriers, renewable energy sources, geothermal resources, landscape changes, environmental impact.

Best Essay Writing Services

Need Custom Written Paper? We'll Write an essay from scratch according to your instructions

Plagiarism Free

Prices From Only $11.99/Page

Call now Order now Start chat

Impact Classification—Environmental Impact Assessment and Economic Impact Assessment – Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest

Geothermal resources and geyser basins containing them can provide significant value for recreation, economical development, and scientific progress including geology, biology, and biotechnology up to new developments in biotechnology of technological processes. Historically, geysers have been used in a geologically improper way as renewable energy sources, plus they were subjected to intrusive scientific research sampling techniques or nearby developments, all having irreversible adversary effects on their structure and ecosystem, generally known as quenching. The geologic features of geysers are extremely complex. Geysers are formed as composite resources containing many interesting hydrothermal and biological features, including clusters of geysers, hot springs, fumaroles, mud pots, and heat-tolerant plant communities. Those are extremely sensitive, and most quenched geysers never recover. The reasons are not known, but most likely the underground plumbing gets easily clogged by mineral precipitates. About 260 of the world’s geysers have been driven to extinction over the past few decades, including about 100 geysers in New Zealand, 46 in Iceland, and 56 in the USA. Most of the world’s extinct geysers were quenched by geothermal energy development (e.g. home heating or industrial-scale power generation) (Barrick, 2010).

Protection of geothermal resources in the U.S. is governed by several federal documents like the “Geothermal Stream Act” (GSA) of 1970 and the “National Environmental Policy Act” (NEPA) of 1969. Unfortunately, the outdated regulations do not provide comprehensible protection for all geological features of geysers, which is especially critical in the related case of the Yellowstone National Park (Barrick, 2010). The issue of leasing geysers for energy production purposes thus has turned into a wide controversy and generally strong social barriers exist for developments of all kind of renewable energy landscapes (Pasqualetti, 2011). In the case of the U.S. as a country , and especially Yellowstone National Park as a separate entity, current situation is also worsened by the failing of the US Congress to adopt the proposed “Old Faithful Geothermal Protection Act” in the mid-1990s, which was supposed to provide better protection for geysers and hot springs (Barrick, 2010). Geothermal energy, being site specific and having the lowest energy density among other fuels has the strongest landscape burden, and thus, produces ta major obstacle to development (Pasqualetti, 2011).

The following chapters will describe the lease application NVN 074289 issued to the Bureau of Land Management (BLM, 2008). The proposed action is to conclude a lease contract with a private geothermal developer for an area within the Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest and Battle Mountain District. “The leased area is 440 acres of land, which lies along the western edge of the Big Smoky Valley below the lower slopes of the eastern side of the Toiyabe Range, Nye County, Nevada” (BLM, 2008).

Properties and Resources of the Leased Land

No extraction of leasable, salable or locatable resources is happening currently on the lease area and the closest surrounding environment. A major industry in the region has historically been mineral resources. Previously located and developed sites of minerals include gold, copper, silver, lithium, molybdenum, bentonite clay, fluorspar, mercury, diatomaceous earth, and turquoise (BLM, 2008). Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest is historically associated with rich precious metals, including silver and gold prospects, in the areas of Birch Creek, the Reese River, Twin Rivers, Big Creek, Washington, Kingston, and Jett mining districts (BLM, 2008). The BLM Tonopah Resource Area includes 65 mining districts and 15 large mines operating since 1994. One quarter of section 18 included into currently pending lease area, has been identified by BLM “as having moderate potential for locatable minerals” (BLM, 2008). Generally, “160 wells were drilled in surrounding areas and seven producing fields had been discovered” (BLM, 2008). “Additional areas with moderate to high potential for oil and gas minerals that are present in the Tonopah RMP; none are within or adjacent to the pending lease area” (BLM, 2008).

Wrango stony fine sandy loam is the main type of soil in the proposed leased area and there is no farmland located within mostly because of the substrate properties and obviously because approximately half of the area is immediately adjacent to the National Forest. The mentioned type of soil “is formed in stone or boulder overlying mixed alluvium, composed of no greater than five percent Calcium carbonate” (BLM, 2008). The soil is too drained, with a high water transmission capacity, therefore, the risk and frequency of flood are reduced. Silt loams from the east side of proposed lease site are intermixed into the soil, providing a high water capacity in comparison to the dominant type of soil (BLM, 2008).

“Average climate of the pending lease area includes bright sunshine, small annual precipitation (averaging five inches per year), clean, dry air, and exceptionally large daily ranges of temperature” (BLM, 2008). Precipitations form three intermittent water streams flowing west from Toiyabe Mountains, including one stream that is fed by springs located northeast of the proposed lease site; including springs 0.5 mile to the east, several on the south of Wineglass Ranch, and several ones being directly adjacent to the leased site; although the site itself does not include any springs.

Proposed lease site lies within the Humboldt River Basin, in the Great Basin Hydrologic Region, which mostly contains trending mountain ranges and intermountain valleys with closed drainage (BLM, 2008). Streams that originate within this basin do not have an outlet to the ocean. Moreover, leasing of geothermal resources does not impact wildlife and fish, except for the lease site directly (BLM, 2008).

Previous research and assessment in probable vulnerabilities of public water supply systems did not detect any surface water contamination (BLM, 2008).

The main water management issue within the region is protection of existing resources, which can be divided into two major categories:

• Protection of spring and stream discharge rates which could be reduced by diversions for industrial or private use which includes interstate and inter-county management and use; improper instream flows maintainment, drought or the effects of groundwater pumping in the areas adjacent to surface water bodies (BLM, 2008). The latter is directly related to the current lease application testing and approval process.
• Maintenance of surface water quality, management of riparian areas.

The sources of noise in the region include mostly natural factors like wind, recreational use of the areas, and wildlife, excluding traffic from surrounding roads (BLM, 2008).

Previous leases and Land Workings in the Region

The BLM Tonopah Resource Area includes two additional known geothermal resource areas at Round Mountain and Fish Lake Valley (BLM, 2008). The former geothermal resource area has been developed by the Round Mountain Gold Corporation, which extracts the geothermal energy for direct-use at the Round Mountain Gold Mine. Darrough hot springs in the northern portion of the pending lease area being directly connected to the Tonopah Area has been drilled and flow tested prior to the release (BLM, 2008). Fish Lake Valley has been issued a permit for a 5 MW plant in 1987. The plant currently operates and sells power to Southern California Edison (BLM, 2008).

Impact Classification

First, it is necessary to mention that the proposed energy development is a binary power plant type, which is the lowest in power efficiency and contributes only 9% to the overall share of geothermal plant technologies deployed within the U.S. Both binary and back pressure plant types in average generate about 5MW/unit, the latter is also the least represented type, corresponding to 4% share (Bayer, Rybach, Blum, & Brauchler, 2013). Such amount of power can supply approximately 1000 citizens. It can in no way be seen as a significant amount of exported energy from the region. Nevertheless, a similar 5 MW project exists.

Impacts that should be considered as long-term and significant are the land use and the fact that the existing natural infrastructure gets disrupted by roads and most probable destruction of precious geothermal features in account with the years of operation (Pasqualetti, 2011). When even far reaching effects on ecology such as from subsidence, extinction of geysers, etc. will be included, especially given the relatively high value of m² used per kW·h for the entire term of plant operation, the establishment and operation of such plant may seem unreasonable.

Short-term impacts include emissions from machinery while building and operating the plant, especially into the atmosphere of the protected Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest, but these may count as insignificant, especially if compared to other disruptions. Emissions of fugitives from plant operation itself will not be presented or reduced to an insignificant minimum since the proposed binary plant type usually operates in a closed cycle (Pasqualetti, 2011).

Water consumption is another significant factor, given the previously described properties of current area and requirements for preservation of instream flows and prohibition of ground water pumping. Installation of geothermal plants typically requires a considerable amount of fresh water, starting from the drilling stage (Pasqualetti, 2011; BLM, 2008). On the other hand, the proposed binary plant type does not consume a lot of water during full operation because of being air-cooled. The mentioned dry air climate and exceptionally large daily ranges of temperature make the stability of plant operation in air-cooled mode and the particular choice of plant technology questionable; especially when compared to water-flash and air-flash types, which also consume least possible amounts of water and may promise higher output power (Pasqualetti, 2011). The report also mentions a probable direct impact of water consumption on future geothermal development (BLM, 2008).

Geothermal plants generally produce a local environmental impact only (Barrick, 2010; Pasqualetti, 2011). Given the abandoned state of the pending lease site, the social, noise, and biodiversity impacts may be considered insignificant. Other insignificant factors are seismicity, vegetation, fish and wildlife, threatened species, and cultural resources impacts.

Economic impacts in the short term are insignificant since the proposed plant can supply nearly 1000 citizens while the county population is significantly higher – 46,693 (BLM, 2008). Selling the mentioned amount of electric power to the national electrical grid can also provide a minimum amount of county budget income from taxation since this is a private leaser. The report mentions no impact on tribal interests, socioeconomics, and environmental justice (BLM, 2008). The long-term economic impacts are hard to predict. After the completion of plant operation period, mining and selling the possible minerals lying within the leased site could provide some local economic change. On the other hand, the destruction of geyser commodity is unclear economically in the long term. However, the maintenance of geyser geological structures and careful research of those have potential for new scientific breakthroughs with immediate global economic impact – like the discovery of thermal bacteria and use of their enzymes for DNA processing and industrial chemistry earlier (Barrick, 2010; Pasqualetti, 2011).

Conclusions

While on a quantitative scale – by calculating the number of impact categories, the number of impacts that are significant is less than the corresponding number of insignificant ones, the cumulative amount of damage from mentioned long-term impacts can overweight the rest. Qualitatively, the development of geothermal energy landscape on proposed lease can be seen as a small-scale project providing power and/or some sales income to the local community; operating very inefficiently and generally at the cost of irreversible damage to precious natural resources. This is an ironic case of implementing “renewable energy”. On the other hand, since the land has some potential for mineral resources, eliminating geysers as the precious commodity interfering with further land developments could be an important strategical step to extracting and selling those resources too.

I consider the most important writers classification to be that by genre. There are countless writers out there, and all of them are grouped in separate genres, according to what they are specialized in writing. This way there are the science-fiction writers, the romance writers, the thriller writers, the adventure writers and the criminal investigation writers. Each and every one of the writers in each category has a specific style of writing, therefore creating books that fit into the proper genre.

Best Essay Writing Services

Need Custom Written Paper? We'll Write an essay from scratch according to your instructions

Plagiarism Free

Prices From Only $11.99/Page

Call now Order now Start chat

The science-fiction writers are those who choose to work with mysterious, fantastic elements in their stories, thus creating books that send the reader into a distant world, very different from the one we live in. The romance writers focus on capturing the passion and the tenderness that surrounds a couple, building stories around the main characters’ relationship. The thriller writers come up with a story which contains suspense, twists and complex characters that go through unexpected events. The adventure writers like to create books about characters who take on quests which they attempt to complete, while having to overcome many challenges. Last but not least, the criminal investigation writers have very straightforward books that depict a crime followed by the investigation trial that leads to the discovery of the murderer.

Apart from the genre classification of writers, there are other types of categorizations, out of which I find most important the writers who make a living by publishing their pieces in newspapers or receiving venue for their short essays. They are generically called freelance writers. Most of them are employed writers who choose to write columns for certain newspapers. They are called journalists or columnists. Their job is to either write about news they hear of, or to create small excerpts of writing about what they consider to be important. Another type of writers that fit into this class is the speechwriters. They are essential in a leader’s life and they get paid for writing what important people will say in front of big crowds. Lastly, I believe that there is another type of writer that fits perfectly in this category. Ghostwriters are quite similar to speechwriters, but they write entire books for their customers, the name of whom will be on the covers. This is a booming industry, as many of the actual people who have their names of book covers did not actually write the books, but rather anonymous persons that were paid for the job.

Lastly I would describe another category of writers that have a very special feature in common: what they write rhymes in a way or another. The poetry writer category is a vast one, from which take part many types of poets, who write in many different styles. This way, there are romantic poets, erotica poets, political poets, satirical poets, pastel poets and free verse poets. Each type of poet has its specific method of writing poems and describing what he or she feels. The satirical poets write poems that say a story and end with morale, in order to help the reader learn something. The pastel poets write poems about nature and its beauty, describing it in metaphors and epithets. Finally, the free verse poet is a rather new type of poets, and they write without the verses to rhyme. Their works are, however, read by few people, as not everyone can find the beauty of free verse.

To conclude, there are many different types in writers classification. One only needs to decide which class they like best in order to write for their own or to read in their free time. Most of the times however, poets have a style that matches their personality, and no matter how much they try, they cannot write poems from other classes.